Audience Theories: C. Wright Mills, George Gerbner, Denis McQuail and Stuart Hall

Audience Theories is the idea that any form of media has to be analysed on 3 levels:

Production - Text - Audience

• Hypodermic Needle
• Cultivation Theory
• Two-Step Theory 
• Semiotics
• Uses and Gratification 
• Reception Analysis

The idea of the Hypodermic Needle theory suggests that the media 'inject' ideas in to the audience, like giving a patient a drug.

When commercial television was introduced and especially adverts, the idea of 'injecting' the audience with a message was expanded further with the thought that advertisers could get an audience to purchase a product by simply repeating the message often and very 'in your face' to know what the product was and make sure the audience would not forget it, known as the 'hard sell' approach.

C. Wright Mills in 'The Power Elite' 1956 suggested four ways that the media perform for audience:

1. to give individuals identity
2. to give people goals and aspiration
3. to give instruction on how to achieve these goals
4. to give people an alternative if they failed, escapism.

The Cultivation Theory gives the idea the the higher the amount of television an audience member watches the more susceptible to the media messages given and the belief that they are real and valid. This theory can also be said to affect how the audience sees fantasy films, and this helps me because that is the genre of film I have chosen to do. My genre of film will mainly be aimed at those who have watched and like fantasy films, so linking that to the theory, those who watch fantasy films are more likely to believe the film has real events in. 

For example, according to this theory, while it does not automatically make you change your behaviour or feelings straight away, years and years of watching violence on TV will make you less sensitive to violence. Like those who play Grand Theft Auto, this may not make you want to run over people in the street, when children overuse a video console it starts to damage the brain development.   

This approach was developed by a professor called George Gerbner, he began the study in the mid-60's, and to study if the events which were seen on the television influenced how viewers saw everyday life. He argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values which can already be seen in a culture.

Two-Step Theory is based on the idea that whether or not we have a direct link to a media, if we discuss it with other people, and we respect their opinion on it, we are more likely to be influenced by it.

If for example, we saw a critic review of a horror film and it showed that it was good, this would influence whether or not the audience would see it or not, whereas if it showed as not as good, this would also influence you but not in a good way. Some influence can be from gossip from friends, if someone said to me how good a film was I would be more inclined to go and see it.

Semiotics and audience readings: this is the way that a sign is shown in media texts and how an audience sees those signs. Although texts are made to be understood by the majority of the audience, they can still decided how they take the message and these can be taken in two ways:

1. Dominant or preferred response - 'the dominant values of society are accepted by the audience.'
2. Subordinate or negotiated response - 'the audience accepts most of the dominant values but may be critical of some aspects' 

Uses and Gratifications: this approach focuses on why people use particular media rather then for it's content. 

Denis McQuail suggests the following reasons for media use: 

1. Information

• finding out about events or conditions going on in society
• seeking advice on certain matters
• general interest in something
• self-education
• gaining a sense of security through knowing something

      2.  Personal Identity

• finding reinforcement for personal values
• finding models of behaviour
• gaining insight into one's self

      3.  Integration and Social Interaction

• gaining insight into circumstances of others; social empathy
• identifying with others and gaining a sense of belonging 
• finding a basis for conversation and social interaction
• having a substitute for real-life companionship
• helping to carry out social roles
• enabling one to connect with family, friends and society

      4.  Entertainment

• escaping, or being diverted, from problems in your own life
• relaxing
• getting intrinsic cultural or visual enjoyment 
• filling in the time
• emotional release

These different reasons can vary with the type of media you are using, for example with horror films, those who go to see it are mostly there to be scared, for some it gives them a thrill. 

Reception Analysis: carries on with the idea from uses and gratifications, that once you know people you media in different ways, the next thing to do is to look at how or why this happens. The basis of the theory is that the text  does not have only one meaning. 

Stuart Hall is one of the main theorists of reception theory, he believes that a 'text' be it in a book, movie or other media, is not simply accepted by the audience, but the audience interprets the text based on their individual lifestyle, their cultural background and their life experiences.